Chapter Summaries: 6-12

Chapter 6 Summary- Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities

• Low-Incidence Disabilities include autism; moderate, severe, and multiple disabilities; sensory impairments; and physical, medical, and health disabilities. 
• Students with Low-Incidence Disabilities make up less than 20% of all the students with disabilities in schools.  Many of these students have received some sort of special education service since birth or shortly after.  They need the same type of attention as all other students do. 
• A developmental delay indicates the presence of a significant physical, intellectual, communication or social or emotional delay without specifying a specific disability category. 
• According to WEBMD, “There are many different types of developmental delays in infants and young children. They include problems with: language or speech, vision movement -- motor skills, social and emotional skills, thinking -- cognitive skills” (http://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/recognizing-developmental-delays-birth-age-2  ).
• ASD, or Autism Spectrum Disorder indicated significant difficulty with social relationships, extreme difficulty with communication with delay of language development, narrow range of interests, low threshold for and difficulty dealing with stress.  “Autism is one of five types of autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum disorders are developmental brain disorders. These disorders are characterized by impaired social interaction and communication skills, and a limited range of activities and interests” (http://autism.emedtv.com/autism/autism.html  ).
• “CDC estimates that an average of 1 in 110 children in the U.S have an ASD.” (http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index.html )
• Students/individuals with extraordinary difficulty in social interactions, making eye contact, using facial expressions appropriately and understanding those of others, seeking out peers and other people, the language and intellectual development are typical-although they may experience difficulty using language in the correct manner.
• Accommodations for students with ASD include: responding to behavior, creating a structured and predictable environment encouraging appropriate social interactions, fostering social interactions (first observing and understanding the student’s behavior), teaching them to wait, take turns, change topics, finish an activity, be more flexible, and be quiet.  Students must also learn how to communicate with students using speech, sign language, pictures, and assistive technology. 
• Moderate or severe intellectual disabilities, multiple disabilities, and deaf-blindness are also low incidence disabilities: Students may learn slowly, need assistance to maintain and generalize their skills and to combine skills to complete complex activities, may not learn as much as typical student, however their goals and objectives are aligned with the general education curriculum.  Accommodations include:  teachers being dedicated to effective teaching and learning practices, instruction developed for different student levels, heterogeneous student groupings, natural support systems, and development of partnerships with families.
• Sensory impairments:  Significant limitations for processing information using visual or auditory channels.  Needs may be related to academics, living in their environments, social, and emotional interactions.  They often have adaptive equipment or materials to help them learn. (Assistive tech)
• Physical disabilities: special supports and services are determined by their needs.  These medical problems can directly affect their learning.  Intellectual levels can vary widely.  These students will most like have social and emotional challenges because of their disability.

Chapter 7 Summary- Students with High-Incidence Disabilities

• Students with high-incidence disabilities have speech or language disabilities, learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, or mild intellectual disabilities.
• They share 3 important characteristics:

1.       They are often hard to distinguish from peers without disabilities, particularly in nonschool settings

2.      They often exhibit a combination of behavioral, social, and academic problems

3.      They benefit from systematic, explicit, highly structured instructional interventions

• What accommodations can be made for students with communication disorders?

 Understanding Speech Problems

1.     Speech articulation – the inability to pronounce sounds correctly at and after the developmentally appropriate age

2.     Stuttering – a speech impairment in which an individual involuntarily repeats a sound or word, resulting in a loss of speech fluency

 Understanding Language Problems

1.     Students who have language problems have difficulty with:

a.       receptive language (understanding what people say)

b.      and expressive language (speaking so people understand)

2.     May have difficulty with social interactions.

3.     Problems with sounds can result in students’ having difficulties having a hard time in language development especially with develop-mental spelling.

4.      May have difficulty verbalizing problem solving.

·         Accommodations for Students with Communication Disorders

1.      Create an atmosphere of acceptance

2.       Encourage listening

3.      Teach listening skills

4.       Use modeling to expand students’ language

5.       Provide many meaningful contexts for practicing speech and language skills

What are the academic needs of students with learning and behavioral disabilities?

·         Learning disabilities (LD) – condition in which a student has dysfunction in processing information typically found in language-based activities, resulting in interference with learning

·         Mild intellectual disabilities – condition in which students have some difficulty meeting the academic and social demands of general education classrooms due in large part to below-average intellectual functioning

·         Emotional Disturbance (ED) – condition in which an individual has significant difficulty in the social and emotional domain, so much so that it interferes with learning

·         Reading Skills

·         Problems with decoding (identifying words accurately and fluently) and comprehension

·         May lack background and vocabulary knowledge as well as strategies for identifying the key elements of stories and content-area texts

·         Writing Skills

·         Include handwriting, spelling, and written expression

·         Handwriting – could be due to lack of fine motor coordination, failure to attend to task, inability to perceive and/or remember visual images accurately, and inadequate handwriting instruction in the classroom

·          Spelling – could have trouble with words that can be spelled phonetically, spelled by following certain linguistic rules, and spelled irregularly

·         Written – product problems and process problems

·          Math Skills

·          Problems with spatial organization

·         Lack of alertness to visual detail

·         Procedural errors

·          Failure to shift mindset from one problem type to another

·          Difficulty forming numbers correctly

·         Difficulty with memory

·          Problems with mathematical judgment and reasoning

·         Problems with mathematical language

·         Learning Skills

·          Problems with attention, organizing and interpreting, reasoning, motor coordination and fine motor coordination, independent learning

• Students with learning disabilities are those who achieve less than typical students academically because they have trouble with processing, organizing, and applying academic information.  They are of normal intelligence. 
• Students with mild intellectual disabilities are those who have some difficulty meeting the academic and social demands of general education classrooms, because they are of below-average intellectual functioning
• Students with emotional disturbance are of average intelligence but have problems with learning primarily because of external behavioral adjustment problems.
• Students with learning and behavioral disabilities may also have problems in the area of academic survival skills, which are related to attending school regularly, being organized, completing task in and out of school, being independent, taking an interest in school, and displaying positive interpersonal skills with peers and adults.
• Social and emotional needs of students with learning and behavioral disabilities include: interpersonal skills, difficulty in social relations with their peers, giving explanations, personal and psychological adjustment, self-image, and severe anxiety or depression.
• What accommodations can you make for students with learning and behavioral disabilities?

·         Addressing Academic Needs

·         Provide instructional accommodations

·         Bypass a student’s need by allowing the student to employ compensatory learning strategies

·         Make accommodation in classroom management, grouping, materials, and methods

·         Provide student with direct instruction on basic or independent learning skills

·         Addressing Social and Emotional Needs

·         Behavior contract

·         Social skills training

·         Self-control training

·         Attribution training

• Outside resources include: http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/emotionaldisturbance  , http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Behavior_Disorders_Emotional_Disturbance  , and http://www.education.com/reference/article/emotional-disturbance/  .

Chapter 8- Students with Special Needs other Than Disabilities

• Section 504 aims to prevent discrimination against these individuals. 
• A disability is any condition that substantially limits a major life activity. 
• Section 504 doesn’t provide funds to school districts to carry out its requirements.  General education personnel are in charge of making accommodations for students protected under this law.  These students include: students with chronic health or medical problems, diabetes, allergies, students with learning problems, and dyslexia. 
• ADHD, or attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder is a medical condition in which students have significant inability to pay attention, excessive motor activity, and/or impulsivity. 
• When you have students with culturally diverse backgrounds you must be culturally aware, consider the demands of the classroom setting, and identify the strengths and interests that students bring to the learning environment.  You should look for potential problems in the curriculum, and make effective decisions related to teaching strategies made by matching the needs of students from culturally diverse backgrounds. 
• Students at risk are those who live in poverty, are neglected or abused, live with substance abuse/substance abusers. 
• ADHD resources include: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/health/jan-june11/autism_04-15.html  , http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/autismpuzzle.pdf  , and http://www.autism-society.org/living-with-autism/  

Chapter 9- Differentiating Instruction

• Resources for differentiating instruction include: http://www.glencoe.com/sec/teachingtoday/subject/di_meeting.phtml  , http://www.internet4classrooms.com/di.htm  , and http://differentiatedinstruction.com/  .
• Preskills are basic skills necessary for performing more complex skills.  Because textbooks don’t usually list pre-skills, you must ask yourself which are required for what you are about to teach.  Teachers must constantly stay on the lookout for students who do not know these pre-skills. 
• When selecting and sequencing examples, teachers must help students make key discriminations between current and previous problem types by using examples that at first require application of only one particular skill.
• When deciding the rate of the introduction of new skills, teachers should realize that new skills should be introduced in small steps and at a rate slow enough to ensure mastery prior to the introduction.  They must also prioritize skills, and slow down the rate of skills introduced as an accommodation in the way curriculum is presented, but realizing that it is not the same thing as reducing the amount of curriculum to be taught.   Teachers should provide direct instruction and practice.
• How teachers can make accommodations for students with special needs when teaching subject-area content:
• Activating Background Knowledge-The amount of background knowledge students have can greatly influence whether they can read subject matter with understanding
• Use the Prep Strategy
• Preview the text or lesson, and choose two to three important concepts
• Conduct a brainstorming session with students
• Evaluate students responses to determine the depth of their prior knowledge of the topic
• Prepare Anticipation Guides
• Consists of a series of statements, some of which may not be true, related to the material that students are about to read
• o Provide Planning Think Sheets
• Help writers focus on background information as well as on the audience and purpose of paper.  This can be done by providing questions such as: (1) what is my topic?, (2) why do I want to write on this paper?, (3) what are two things I already know that will make it easy to write on this paper?, (4) who will read my paper?, and (5) why will the reader be interested in this topic?
• How can content be organized?
• Use advanced organizers
• Use Advance Organizers
• Identifying major topics and activities
• Presenting an outline of content§ Providing background information
• Stating concepts and ideas to be learned in the lesson
• Motivating students to learn by showing the relevance of the activity
• Stating the objectives or outcomes of the lesson
• Employ Cue Words for Organizational Patterns
• Ways in which content area texts are written to reflect main ideas such as compare-contrast, cause-effect, and problem solution
• Construct Study Guides
• Outlines, abstracts, or questions that emphasize important information in texts
• Helpful in improving comprehension for students with special needs in content-area classrooms
• Not a substitute for direct instruction
• Create Graphic Organizers
• Visual format that helps students to organize their understanding of information being presented or read and the relationships between various parts of the information

Chapter 10- Strategies for Independent Learning

• Independent learning is increasingly important as students meet federal and state standards.  It occurs in several key areas including: gaining information, storing and receiving information, retrieving and expressing information, self-advocating, and managing time. 
• Self-advocacy is an important part of self-determination, or the ability to make decisions and direct behavior so that the desired goals are achieved.   Self-advocacy links: http://www.ncld.org/at-school/your-childs-rights/advocacy-self-advocacy , www.wrightslaw.com , and www.dredf.org .
• Learning strategies are techniques, principles, and rules to help solve problems and complete tasks independently.  When teaching these independent learning strategies teachers should asses current strategy use, clarify expectations, demonstrate strategy use, encourage memorization of steps, administer post-tests, and allow for guided and independent practice. 
• Learning strategies include word identification and reading fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, listening and note-taking, writing, writing technology, problem solving in math, and managing time and resources.
• Important vocabulary strategies include:
• SCROL- which enables students to take notes when they are reading.  It has five steps including: surveying the headings, connecting, reading the text, outlining, and looking back. 
• PARS- is a simplified textbook reading strategy.  The four steps include previewing the material, asking questions, reading the chapter, and summarizing the main ideas in the chapter.
• CAPS- a self-questioning strategy that guides students as they look for these important story elements.  The four steps of CAPS include asking who the characters are, what the aim of the story is, what the problem is, and how it is solved. 
• SLiCK- helps students comprehend textbooks that have been pre-recorded on a CD.  It includes following these steps: (1) set it up, (2) look ahead through the chapter, (3) comprehend, and (4) keep it together.
• RUDPC- helps students retrieve desired information from websites.  The steps include reading the title and headings, using the cursor to skim the page, deciding whether you need the page, printing the page, and copying the bibliographic information.
• POSSE- is a reading comprehension strategy which consists of (1) predicting ideas, (2) organizing the ideas, (3) searching for the structure, (4) summarizing the main ideas, and (5) evaluating your understanding.

• Important listening and note-taking strategies include: give me five, TALS, TASSELL, and CALL UP.
• Writing strategies include: POWER, COPS, Report Writing, Leaning Spelling Words, and W-W-W What=2 How=2.
• Technology can be used to expand writing abilities by revising essaying, and correctly using spell-checkers.
• Strategies for problem solving in math include: STAR, LAMPS, SLOBS, and FOIL.  Information on how to use FOIL: http://www.gradeamathhelp.com/math-foil-system.html .
• In order to maximize learning time, analyze long-term tasks, differentiate between long and short-term assignments, record information in daily schedule books, and stick to a daily routine.
• How students use strategies independently: (1) self-instruction, (2) self-monitoring, and (3) self-questioning.
• Chapter 10 Resources include: http://www.ncld.org/at-school/your-childs-rights/advocacy-self-advocacy , http://www.gradeamathhelp.com/math-foil-system.html , www.wrightslaw.com , and www.dredf.org .

Chapter 11- Evaluating Student Learning

• Examples of testing accommodations include:
• Before the test- study guides, practice tests, individual tutoring, teaching test-taking skills, and modified test construction
• During the test- alternative forms of questions, and alternative ways of administering tests
• After the test- changed letter or number grades, changed grading criteria, and alternatives to letter and number grades
• Mnemonics impose an order on information to be remembered using words, poems, rhymes, jingles, or images to aid memory.  Examples of mnemonics: http://www.bucks.edu/~specpop/mnemonics.htm .
• The keyword method uses visual imagery to make material more meaningful to students and hence easier to remember. 
• Differentiated report cards have individualized provisions for students to clarify the meaning of their grades.  They can be used with most students in your class and are appropriate for students with disabilities.
• Individualized grading includes accommodations that involve changing either the elements being graded or the values or weights assigned to them.  
• IEP Objectives Grading
• Focuses on how goals are addressed in the classroom
• Informs students, parents, and teachers
• Identifies important objectives and supports
• Reflects progress on skills important to students
• Eliminates redundancy of separate reporting
• Improves communication about grades
• Carries risk that criteria will be unrelated to general ed expectations
• Curriculum prioritization grading focuses on the need for supports on content and assignments, reduces risk that performance on less important tasks will pull down grade, helps identify most important elements of curriculum, and depends on collaborative decision on which content to stress.
• Portfolio assessment is a method of evaluation in which a purposeful collection of student work is used to determine effort, progress, and achievement in one or more areas by students in the classroom.
• Chapter 11 Resources include: http://www.greatschools.org/special-education/legal-rights/1019-grading-system-for-a-student-with-ld-and-an-iep.gs , http://www.uen.org/k-2educator/assessment.shtml  , and http://www.bucks.edu/~specpop/mnemonics.htm .

Chapter 12- Responding to Student Behavior

• Disciplinary actions deal majorly with learning and following a teacher.  It is less about strict obedience.  They are not about control and power, but instead about enabling students to reach full potential.  Disciplinary actions may be culturally biased, and formal or informal.
• Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PSIS) clearly defines outcomes and deals with behavioral and biomedical sciences.  Its practices demonstrate as effective through research and systematic approaches enhance learning environment and outcomes for all students.
• PBIS Interventions are grouped by intensity:
• Primary prevention-create school environment and addresses broad needs (80% of students)
• Secondary prevention-quick ways to deal with behavior problems (15% of students)
• Tertiary prevention- intensive interventions for chronic and serious behavior problems (5% of students)
• Rules for a learning based environment should be specific, use positive wording, be posted, be discussed with students early in the year, be rehearsed while students learn them, and be enforced consistently.
• Tips for an effective classroom include:
• Providing manageable amounts of information
• Being clear in information provided
• Conveying the same message verbally and nonverbally
• Being aware of language differences
• Building communication in small ways
• Taking time to write or express positive comments
• A token economy is a primary prevention strategy that creates a system in which students “earn money” that they exchange for rewards.
• When using a token economy: identify desired behaviors, decide on classroom “currency”, assign value to each target behavior, decide rewards to be earned, assign “prices” to rewards, explain economy to students, and create a simple exchange system.
• There are several steps in functional behavior assessment include: verify seriousness of problem, define behavior in concrete terms, collect data to understand behavior, analyze data, and form hypothesis. 
• A specific hypothesis addresses why specific behavior might occur and a global hypothesis addresses how factors in the student’s home, life, or school might affect all behavior.
• In cognitive behavior management, students are taught to monitor their own behavior, make judgments about its appropriateness, and change it as they feel that it is needed. 
• Self-monitoring is when students watch their own behavior.  Self-reinforcement is used in conjunction with this. 
• Chapter 12 Resources: http://futurescholars.rutgers.edu/FutureScholars/Images/Using%20Teacher%20Praise%20&%20Opportunities%20To%20Respond%20to%20Promote%20Appropriate%20Student%20Behavior.pdf , http://www.stopbullying.gov/ , and http://www.pbis.org/ .